Piaget

1. Children adapt to their environment. This is a desire that sparks their curiosity.
2. In the concrete operational stage, children learn about conservation.

Vygotsky

1. Vygotsky felt that social interaction provided the foundation for cognitive development.
2. Everyone learns by building on previous experiences. This is known as scaffolding.

Behaviorism

1. Positive and negative reinforcement both increase behavior. However, positive reinforcement increases behavior by adding a stimulus, and negative reinforcement increases behavior by removing a stimulus.
2. In operant conditioning the manipulator uses a stimulus to create a desired response.

Information Processing

1. Information must first go into the short-term memory before it can be “filed” in the long-term memory. There is only about twenty seconds in which this process occurs.
2. If a teacher gives students a review for an exam, they tend to do better on tests than if none is given. The review gives them “specific strategies for learning.”

My Personal Stages of Moral Development

Pre-conventional level ~ The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level consists of the first and second stages of moral development, and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner. A child with preconventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage One – At preschool age, I thought that everything I did was morally wrong. In essence, I felt I was a morally bad person because I was punished for everything. I did know that some things were worse than others because I did get punished more severely for some things than others. For example, talking above a quiet whisper was a stronger punishment than other actions, so I knew it must have been bad to talk to people unless I was spoken to first. Therefore, I would not initiate conversation with people.

Stage Two – My siblings and I would take up for each other. We knew if we did not, the punishment would be worse. We would lie for one another and keep secrets for one another. What I got out of this was they would give protect me if I would protect them.

Conventional level ~ The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. Those who reason in a conventional way judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and expectations. The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development. Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

Stage Three – I reached this stage of moral development when I began elementary school. I liked the positive attention I received from the teachers at the school and did everything I could to get positive feedback. I was a straight A student because I liked feeling as if I were a “good girl.” I began to act like a perfect little angel because I wanted to be accepted by the church. Everything I did had to be perfect.

Stage Four – I reached this stage in middle school or high school. I strove to uphold the law. However, since I got arrested for doing things I did not feel was wrong (running away); I decided there no matter what I did, I would end up in jail anyway. Therefore, I began doing things to break the law (drinking, drugs). I still made excellent grades in school and went to church, but I led a double life.

Post-conventional level ~ The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society, and that the individual’s own perspective may take precedence over society’s view; individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice. People who exhibit post-conventional morality view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms—ideally rules can maintain the general social order and protect human rights. Rules are not absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level.

Stage Five – I did begin to feel that others opinions were important while I was in my late teens, early twenties. I believe it was around the time I moved out on my own. I bypassed Utilitarianism and Relativism fairly quickly.

Stage Six – I do not believe in Utilitarianism or Relativism. I am more of an Absolutist and always have been. I do not believe that laws should be adjusted for the person or the greater good. I feel that each person should obey the same laws and get the same punishment for their crimes. I feel I am in this stage as we speak.

I do believe that women go through the three stages that Gilligan described. However, when young, all children (even rich white males) are selfish. Because of this, I don’t think that is enough to consider this a stage of moral development. I know that women give up a lot when they have families of their own. They do not give things up because they have to, but because they want to. However, in my experience, this is not a stage of moral development either. We do things to please our families not because we think it is morally right, but because we love them. I think most women balance what makes them happy with what makes their families happy, but men do the same thing. I think Kolberg’s sixth stage of moral development is the same stage as Gilligan’s third. It is about balance. I know that women and men are different, but most of us learn right in wrong in the same way. I do not think there is enough evidence or depth to Gilligan’s theory. I also do not feel her theory has anything to do with morals.

General Psychology

Assessment and Anxiety Disorders

Maladaptive Behavior Approach – defines a behavior as psychologically damaging or abnormal if it interferes with the individual’s ability to function in one’s personal life or in society

Generalized Anxiety or GAD is characterized by excessive or unrealistic worry about almost everything or feeling that something bad is about to happen.  These anxious feelings occur on a majority of days for a period of at least six months.  GAD is also called “free floating anxiety.”

Panic Disorder is characterized by recurrent and unexpected panic attacks.  The person becomes so worried about having another panic attack that this intense worrying interferes with normal psychological functioning.  Often interpreted by individuals as heart attack or “going crazy.”

Phobia – is an anxiety disorder characterized by an intense and irrational fear that is out of all proportion to the possible danger of the object or situation.  Because of this intense fear, which is accompanied by increased physiological arousal.  A person goes to great lengths to avoid the feared event.  If the feared event cannot be avoided, the person feels intense anxiety.

Social Phobia – characterized by irrational, marked, and continuous fear of performing in social situations.  The individual's fear that they will humiliate or embarrass themselves.

Specific Phobia – formerly called simple phobias, are characterized by marked and persistent fears that are unreasonable and triggered by anticipation of, or exposure to, a specific object or situation.  (spiders, flying, heights, seeing blood)

Agoraphobia – characterized by anxiety about being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing.  If a panic attack or panic-like symptoms (sudden dizziness or onset of diarrhea) were to occur.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder – a disabling condition that results from direct personal experience of an event that involves actual or threatened death or serious injury from witnessing such an event or hearing that such an event has happened to a family member or close friend.

Obsessions – persistent, recurring irrational thoughts, impulses, or images that a person is unable to control and that interfere with normal functioning.

Compulsions – irresistible impulses to perform over and over some senseless behavior or ritual (hand washing, checking things, counting, putting things in order).

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – consists of obsessions and compulsions.

Somatoform Disorders – marked by a pattern of recurring, multiple, and significant bodily (somatic) symptoms that existed over several years.  The bodily symptoms (pain, vomiting, paralysis, blindness) are not under voluntary control, have no physical causes, and are believed to be caused by psychological factors.

Systematic Desensitization – a technique of behavior therapy, based on classical conditioning, in which a person is gradually and progressively exposed to fearful or anxiety-provoking stimuli while practicing deep relaxation.  Systematic desensitization is a form of counter-conditioning because it replaces, or counters, fear and anxiety with relaxation.

3 legal definitions of insanity
1. Involuntary commitment
2. Not guilty by reason of insanity
3. Competence to stand trial

Most abnormal behaviors fall in the middle on the biological-psychological continuum.

50% of Americans report at least one lifetime disorder. 40% seek professional help?

two most common mental disorders
Substance abuse
Anxiety disorder

two most common phobias
Social phobias
Specific phobias

Exposure treatment technique, including both imaginary and in vivo
Gradually exposing the person to the actual anxiety-producing situations or objects that he or she is attempting to avoid and continuing the exposure treatments until the anxiety decreases. Exposure treatment technique is effective for Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and Phobias.

Two treatments for specific phobias
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
Exposure therapy
Systematic desensitization

conduct disorders – a repetitive and persistent pattern of behaving that has been going on for at least a year and that violates the established social rules or the rights of others.  Problems may include aggressive behaviors such as threatening to harm people, abusing or killing animals, destroying property, being deceitful, or stealing.

some of the problems shared by adolescent shooters
Uncontrolled anger and blamed others for problems
Little parental supervision
Isolated and rejected by fears
Access to firearms in homes
Gave warning signs of violent intentions

Mood Disorders and Schizophrenia

Major Depression – (major depressive disorder) marked by at least two weeks of continually being in a bad mood, having no interest in anything and getting no pleasure from activities.  In addition, a person must have at least four of the following symptoms: problems with eating, sleeping, thinking, concentrating, or making decisions, lacking energy, thinking about suicide, and feeling worthless or guilty.

Bipolar Disorder – marked by fluctuations between episodes of depression and mania.  A manic episode goes on for at least a week, during which a person is unusually euphoric, cheerful, and high and has at least three of the following symptoms: has great self-esteem, has little need for sleep, speaks rapidly and frequently, has racing thoughts is easily distracted, and pursues pleasurable activities.

Biological Theory of Depression – genetic, neurological, chemical, and physiological components that may predispose or put someone at risk for developing a mood disorder.

Beck’s Theory of Depression – when we are feeling down, automatic negative thoughts that we rarely notice occur continually throughout the day.  These negative thoughts distort how we perceive and interpret the world and thus influence or behaviors and feelings, which in turn contribute to our feeling depressed.

Risk Factors for Suicide
Most who talk about suicide do not attempt.
Most who attempt do not succeed.
Most who succeed have discussed it.
Whites twice as likely to commit suicide.
Rates higher among rich, non-religious, and unmarried.
Women much more likely to attempt, men much more likely to succeed.
Suicide rate among 15-19 year olds has doubled since 1950.
3% of alcoholics commit suicide.
Highest rate is among elderly (20/100,000), almost double the national average (12/1000,000).

Personality Disorders In General – consists of inflexible, long-standing, maladaptive traits that cause significantly impaired functioning or great distress in one’s personal and social life.

Antisocial Personality Disorder – refers to a pattern of disregarding or violating the rights of others without feeling guilt or remorse.

Positive and Negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
Positive – reflect a distortion of normal functions: Distorted thinking results in delusions; distorted perceptions result in hallucinations; distorted language results in disorganized speech.
Negative – reflect a decrease in or loss of normal functions: decreased range in an intensity of emotions; decreased ability to express thoughts; and decreased initiate to engage in goal-directed behaviors.

Diathesis Stress Theory of Schizophrenia – says that some people have a genetic predisposition (diathesis) that interacts with life stressors to result in the onset and development of schizophrenia.

Biological causes of schizophrenia
Genetic predisposition
Genetic markers

Neurological causes of schizophrenia
Ventricle size
Less activation of the prefrontal cortex

Dissociative Identity Disorder is characterized by a person having a disruption, split, or breakdown in his, or her normal integrated self, consciousness, memory, or sense of identity.  This disorder is relatively rare and unusual.

How do persons who are depressed explain bad events that happen to them?
Stable
Eternal
Global

common drug treatments for mood disorders
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors – work primarily by raising the level of a single neurotransmitter, serotonin.
Anti-depressants – may take 4 to 6 weeks to work, help about 65% of patients while the remaining 35% receive little or no benefit.  Although anti-depressants initially help, about half or more patients relapse when the medication stops.  One disadvantage of anti-depressants their unwanted side effects.

effectiveness of psychotherapy and medication therapy for depression
Psychotherapy alone or along with medication therapy is more effective than medication therapy alone.

nicknames for major depression and schizophrenia
Major Depression – common cold
Schizophrenia – cancer

Types I and II schizophrenia, including their likelihood for recover
Type I – positive symptoms such as hallucinations which are distortion of normal functions.  This group has no intellectual impairment, good reaction to medications, and a good chance of recovery.
Type II – negative symptoms, such as dulled emotions and little inclination to speak, which are a loss of normal functions, has intellectual impairment, poor reaction to medications, poor chance of recovery.

Social Psychology

Just World Phenomenon – the tendency to believe the world is just and people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Attribution – things we point to as the cause of events, other people’s behaviors, and our own behaviors.

Fundamental Attribution Error – Tendency to underestimate effects of a situation and overestimate importancy of personal characteristics.

Self-Serving Bias – explaining our successes by attributing them to our dispositions or personality traits and explaining our failures by attributing them to the situations.

Cognitive Dissonance – catalyst to change – state of unpleasant psychological tension that motivates us to reduce our cognitive inconsistencies by making our beliefs more consistent with each other.

Conformity – any behavior you perform because of group pressure, even though that pressure may not involve direct requests.

Obedience – performing some behavior in response to an order given by someone in a position of power or authority.

Bystander Effect – an individual may feel inhibited from taking some action because of the presence of others.

Diffusion of Responsibility Theory – in the presence of others, individuals feel less personal responsibility and are less likely to take action in a situation where help is needed.

Deindividuation – the increased tendency of subjects to behave irrationally or perform antisocial behaviors when there is less chance of being personally identified.

Control, aggression, and power are the primary motives of rape?

Aggressive children perceive the world and interactions differently. For instance, they view the world as more hostile and overlook positive social cues.

People are most likely to offer help others when personal distress, empathy, and norms and values are present.

decision stage model of helping
1. Notice the situation
2. Interpret as one in which help is needed
3. Assume personal responsibility
4. Choose a form of assistance
5. Carry out that assistance

factors that increase obedience
People have learned to follow orders of authority figures.
People learned to follow orders.
Increased punishment for not following orders.

factors that increase conformity
Peer pressure
Compliance
Social pressures

Asch experiment
People were showing 4 lines, two of the same length and 2 of different lengths.  They had to choose whether one matched A, B, or C.  Three of four people at the round table were told to choose the wrong line.  The fourth person went last and 75% of them, although knowing they were doing so, chose the wrong line as well.

Milgram experiment
Subjects were told to shock and raise the voltage of the shock when a person gave the wrong answer to a question.  The person answering the question was in another room screaming to stop, but 62% of the people did not stop and raised toe voltage to the max amount (450 volts).  They did so because they were told to do so by an authority figure.

Stages of Development

Infants:

• The infant relies on parents for almost everything, which is important to develop trust.
• The infant’s gross motor skills are developing. He learns the difference between itself and others. He learns to sit, crawl, and some independence. He may begin to speak.
• The infant cannot do anything for itself to start with and needs parents’ involvement for almost everything. They need to be stimulated to develop neurological pathways. This helps to develop much needed memory skills. Reading the same story to the infant over and over again helps to develop those pathways.

Erikson’s Stage: Infancy (Oral Sensory Stage)

Ego Development Outcome: Trust vs. Mistrust

Basic Strength: Drive, and Hope

Two-year-olds:

• They become independent form parents on some needs, but may suffer from separation anxiety if parents leave them with others.
• Their fine motor skills begin developing. They learn to use the potty. They walk fairly well. They learn to climb, color, paint, and catch balls. Their speech continues to develop.
• They are still very self-centered and rely on others for all of their basic needs. They need constant interaction with people to develop social skills.

Erikson’s Stage: Early Childhood

Ego Development Outcome: Autonomy vs. Shame

Basic Strength: Self-control, Courage, and Will

Preschool years:

• They may still demand attention from their parents. They begin to bond with their peers if they are exposed to them in pre-school and daycare.
• They begin to classify objects such as: colors, shapes, numbers, letters, animals, plants, and etc. some are still working on developing skills such as potty training, fine and gross motor skills.
• They need interaction to learn both socially and educationally. They need to be read to and played with. They may depend on parents for many basic survival needs.

Erikson’s Stage: Play Age

Ego Development Outcome: Initiative vs. Guilt

Basic Strength: Purpose

Elementary school years:

• They begin pulling away from their parents and making close bonds with their peers. They like to think they are more independent than what they are.
• They begin to get an idea about morality. Their fine motor skills are being refined. They begin reading and writing on their own. They begin to think more logically and start learning about the consequences of their actions.
• They need constant encouragement and praise to be able to fully develop mentally. This helps to build their confidence. They also need boundaries, but still rely on parents to take care of most of their basic needs.

Erikson’s Stage: School Age (Latency)

Ego Development Outcome: Industry vs. Inferiority

Basic Strength: Method, and Competence

High school years:

• They generally pull completely away from their parents. The relationship between them and their parents may become strained and stressful for both parties. They may feel no one understands them. They start joining peer groups to help find their place in the world.
• Their morality is still developing. They start to search for their individual identity. They begin to think more abstractly. They begin to make important decisions for their own life.
•  They have a need for love and belonging. They still need their parents for their basic needs, food and shelter. They still need encouragement and need respect. They need to know that they are understood. They need boundaries, but also need freedom. 

Erikson’s Stage: Adolescence

Ego Development Outcome: Identity vs. Role Confusion

Basic Strength: Devotion, and Fidelity

College years:

• Most people at this age begin to tear down the wall between their parents and themselves. They must have a strong social network to help them. They may begin to find love.
• They begin to think more on morality. They move out on their own. For the first time they are responsible for almost every aspect of their lives. They are able to formulate their own motives and ideas.
• They need approval and recognition. Most are now responsible for their own basic needs. They still need a family network and parents to be part of their social network, but they also have a need to completely break away from their parents.

Erikson’s Stage: Young Adulthood

Ego Development Outcome: Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation

Basic Strength: Affiliation, and Love

The professional years:

•  Tight bonds are formed with others than their families. They begin their own family units and bond with their children and spouses. They have a different type of relationship with co-workers than with people they care for.
• They consider issues from others’ viewpoints. They weigh information and try to make the best decisions based on their own ethic. They start truly finding out who they are. Many become parents; therefore they are responsible for others rather than themselves.
• They need connections with others. They need to be understood, but also have a need to understand others.

Erikson’s Stage: Middle Adulthood

Ego Development Outcome: Generativity vs. Self-absorption or Stagnation

Basic Strength: Production and Care

Old age:

•  Their bonds are close with their children and grandchildren. They may once again become close with their siblings. They may start losing their friends and family members, which may cause a great deal of grief.
• Their ethic is fully developed. Their potential is fully fulfilled.
•  They still have a need for acceptance and to pass on their wisdom. They need to be remembered and not pushed to the side. 

Erikson’s Stage: Late Adulthood (recovery)

Ego Development Outcome: Integrity vs. Despair

Basic Strength: Wisdom